Since the late 1970s, U.S. policy makers at both the federal and state levels have enacted a variety of incentives, regulations, and programs to encourage the production and use of agriculture-based renewable energy. Motivations cited for these legislative initiatives include energy security concerns, reduction in greenhouse gas emissions, and raising domestic demand for U.S.-produced farm products.

Agricultural households and rural communities have responded to these government incentives and have expanded their production of renewable energy, primarily in the form of biofuels and wind power, every year since 1996.

Ethanol and biodiesel, the two most widely used biofuels, receive significant government support under federal law in the form of mandated fuel use, tax incentives, loan and grant programs, and certain regulatory requirements.

Ethanol plays a key role in policy discussions about energy, agriculture, taxes, and the environment. In the United States it is mostly made from corn; in other countries it is often made from cane sugar. Fuel ethanol is generally blended in gasoline to reduce emissions, increase octane, and extend gasoline stock.

U.S. policy to expand the production of biofuel for domestic energy use has significant implications for agriculture and resource use. While ongoing research and development investment may radically alter the way biofuel is produced in the future, for now, corn-based ethanol continues to account for most biofuel production. As corn ethanol production increases, so does the production of corn. The effect on agricultural commodity markets has been national, but commodity production adjustments, and resulting environmental consequences, vary across regions. Changes in the crop sector have also affected the cost of feed for livestock producers.

Table of Contents

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(Table of Contents below)

Energy: Ethanol: The Production and Use of Biofuels, ...
 

 

Table of Contents

1.  "Biofuels: Ethanol and Biodiesel Explained," U.S. Energy Information Administration, June, 2009  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
 

2.  "Ethanol Basics," Alternative Fuels and Advanced Vehicles Data Center, U.S. Dept. of Energy. . . . . . 3

3.  "Biofuels: Potential Effects and Challenges of Required Increases in Production and Use," U.S. GAO, August 2009 . . . . . . 11
 

4.  "Ethanol and Biofuels: Agriculture, Infrastructure, and Market Constraints Related to Expanded Production," Congressional Research Service (CRS) Report for Congress RL33928, March 16, 2007 . . . . . . 13

- Introduction
- Issues with Corn-Based Ethanol Supply
- Overview of Long-Run Corn Ethanol Supply Issues
- Agricultural Issues
- Feed Markets
- Exports
- Food vs. Fuel
- Energy Supply Issues
- Energy Balance
- Natural Gas Demand
- Energy Security
- Infrastructure and Distribution Issues
- Distribution Issues
- Higher-Level Ethanol Blends
- Sugar Ethanol
- Biodiesel
- Cellulosic Biofuels
- Conclusion
- Table 1. U.S. Production of Biofuels from Various Feedstocks
 

5.  "Agriculture-Based Renewable Energy Production," CRS Report for Congress RL32712, October 16, 2007 . . . . . . 29

- Introduction
- Agriculture's Share of Energy Production
- Agriculture-Based Biofuels
- Ethanol
- Ethanol Pricing Issues
- Corn-Based Ethanol
- Ethanol from Cellulosic Biomass Crops
- Methane from an Anaerobic Digester
- Biodiesel
- Wind Energy Systems
- Public Laws That Support Agriculture-Based Energy Production and Use
- Tariff on Imported Ethanol
- Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 (CAAA; P.L. 101-549)
- Energy Policy Act of 1992 (EPACT; P.L. 102-486)
- Biomass Research and Development Act of 2000 (Biomass Act; Title III, P.L. 106-224)
- Energy Provisions in the 2002 Farm Bill (P.L. 107-171)
- The Healthy Forest Restoration Act of 2003 (P.L. 108-148)
- The American Jobs Creation Act of 2004 (P.L. 108-357)
- Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPACT; P.L. 109-58)
- Tax Relief and Health Care Act of 2006 (P.L. 109-432)
- Agriculture-Related Energy Bills in 110th Congress
- House-passed New Farm Bill -- H.R. 2419
- State Laws and Programs
- Administration Proposals
- State of the Union (SOU) 2006
- State of the Union (SOU) 2007
- USDA's New Farm Bill Proposal (January 2007)
- For More Information
- Renewable Energy
- Biofuels
- Wind Energy Systems
- Figure 1. U.S. Motor Vehicle Fuel Use, 2006
- Figure 2. Ethanol Versus Gasoline Prices, 2000-2007
- Figure 3. U.S. Ethanol Production: Actual and Projected, Versus the Renewable Fuels Standard (RFS)
- Figure 4. Corn Versus Ethanol Prices, 2000-2007
- Figure 5. U.S. Biodiesel Production, 1998-2007
- Figure 6. Soybean Oil Versus Diesel Fuel Price, 2000-2007
- Figure 7. U.S. Installed Wind Energy Capacity, 1981-2007
- Figure 8. Natural Gas Price, Wholesale, 1994-2007
- Figure 9. U.S. Areas with Highest Wind Potential
- Table 1. U.S. Energy Production and Consumption, 2006
- Table 2. Energy and Price Comparisons for Alternate Fuels, July 2007
- Table 3. Ethanol Production Capacity by State, October 1, 2007
- Table 4. Ethanol Dry Mill Cost of Production Estimates, 2002
- Table 5. U.S. Diesel Fuel Use, 2005
- Table 6. U.S. Potential Biodiesel Feedstock, 2005-2006
- Table 7. Installed Wind Energy Capacity by State, Ranked by Capacity as of December 31, 2006
 

6.  "Biofuels Incentives: A Summary of Federal Programs," CRS Report for Congress R40110, January 27, 2010 . . . . . . . 91

- Introduction
- Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)—Renewable Fuel Standard
- Internal Revenue Service (IRS)
- Volumetric Ethanol Excise Tax Credit
- Small Ethanol Producer Credit
- Biodiesel Tax Credit
- Small Agri-Biodiesel Producer Credit
- Renewable Diesel Tax Credit
- Credit for Production of Cellulosic Biofuel
- Special Depreciation Allowance for Cellulosic Biofuel Plant Property
- Alternative Fuel Station Credit
- Department of Agriculture (USDA)
- Biorefinery Assistance
- Repowering Assistance
- Bioenergy Program for Advanced Biofuels
- Feedstock Flexibility Program for Producers of Biofuels (Sugar)
- Biomass Crop Assistance Program (BCAP)
- Rural Energy for America Program (REAP)
- Biomass Research and Development
- Other USDA Programs
- Department of Energy (DOE)
- Biorefinery Project Grants
- Loan Guarantees for Ethanol and Commercial Byproducts from Cellulose, Municipal Solid Waste, and Sugar Cane
- DOE Loan Guarantee Program
- Cellulosic Ethanol Reserve Auction
- U.S. Customs and Border Protection--Import Duty for Fuel Ethanol
- Department of Transportation--Manufacturing Incentive for Flexible Fuel Vehicles
- Table A-1. Federal Biofuels Incentives by Agency

7.  "Fuel Ethanol: Background and Public Policy Issues," CRS Report for Congress RL33290, April 24, 2008 . . . . . . 109

- Introduction
- Ethanol Basics
- Ethanol and the Agricultural Economy
- Ethanol Refining and Production
- Fuel Consumption
- E85 Consumption
- Development of Cellulosic Feedstocks
- Economic Effects
- Air Quality
- Before the Energy Policy Act of 2005
- Following the Energy Policy Act of 2005
- E85 and Air Quality
- Energy Consumption and Greenhouse Gas Emissions
- Energy Balance
- Greenhouse Gas Emissions
- Policy Concerns and Congressional Activity
- Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS)
- "Boutique" Fuels
- Alcohol Fuel Tax Incentives
- Ethanol Imports
- Fuel Economy Credits for Dual Fuel Vehicles
- The 2008 Farm Bill
- Conclusion
- Table 1. Corn Utilization, 2007-2008 Forecast
- Table 2. Top 10 Ethanol Producers by Capacity, March 2008
- Table 3. Estimated U.S. Consumption of Fuel Ethanol, Gasoline, and Diesel
- Table 4. Wholesale Price of Pure Ethanol Relative to Gasoline
- Table 5. Expanded Renewable Fuel Standard Requirements Under P.L. 110-140

8.  "Alcohol Fuels Tax Incentives," CRS Report for Congress RL32979, July 6, 2005 . . . . . . . 137

- Introduction
- The Alcohol Fuel Mixtures Excise Tax Credit
- The Credit for Methanol
- How the New Tax Credit Works
- The Structure of Motor Fuels Excise Taxes
- Excise Tax Exemption
- Example
- Revenue and Highway Trust Fund Implications
- Revenue Effects of the New Alcohol Fuels Mixtures Tax Credit
- Revenue Losses Under the Proposed Renewable Fuels Standard
- Other Possible Tax Subsidies for Alcohol Fuels
- Tax Credits for Pure Alcohol Fuels
- Small Ethanol Producer Tax Credit
- Income Tax Deduction for Alcohol-Fueled Vehicles
- Section 29 Production Tax Credit
- Technical Appendix
- Table 1. Comparison of the Net, After-Tax Subsidy Value of the New Mixtures Tax Credit With the Old Excise Tax Exemption
- Table 2. Projections of Revenue Losses to the General Fund (and Increases to the HTF) from the New Alcohol Fuels Mixtures Excise Tax Credit ($millions)
- Table 3. Projected Ethanol Use and Corresponding Revenue Losses to the General Fund (and Increases to the HTF), Baseline vs. the Renewable Fuels Standard (RFS), FY2006-2012

9.  "Intermediate-Level Blends of Ethanol in Gasoline, and the Ethanol 'Blend Wall'," CRS Report for Congress R40445, January 28, 2010 . . . . . . 153

- Background
- What Is the "Blend Wall"?
- Approval of New Fuels and Fuel Additives
- What Studies or Data Must Accompany a Section 211(f) Waiver Request?
- What Actions Are Federal Agencies Such as the Department of Energy and EPA Taking to Study the Compatibility of Higher Blends of Fuel in Non-flex Fuel Vehicles? What Are the Timelines of These Studies, and Will They Be Comprehensive Enough to Support a Section 211(f) Waiver Request?
- What Are the Potential Outcomes of a Waiver Request?
- What Entity Can Make a Request?
- Other Than a Successful Section 211 Waiver Request, Are There Other Means to Approve Higher Blends of Ethanol, Such as an Executive Order or Other Administrative Action?
- Growth Energy's Waiver Application
- Other Issues
- Figure 1. Renewable Fuel Standard Under the Energy Independence and Security Act

10.  "Selected Issues Related to an Expansion of the Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS)," CRS Report for Congress R40155, January 28, 2010 . . . . . . 167

- Introduction
- Biofuels Defined
- The Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS)
- Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (EISA; P.L. 110-140)
- The Expanded RFS Defined
- Usage Volume Requirements
- Required Reduction in Greenhouse Gas Emissions
- Implementation of the RFS
- RFS as Public Policy
- Proponents' Viewpoint
- Critics' Viewpoints
- The Increasing Cost of Biofuels Policy
- Potential Issues with the Expanded RFS
- Overview of Long-Run Corn Ethanol Supply Issues
- Corn Prices
- Corn Yields
- Corn Area
- Corn-Soybean Rotation
- Overview of Non-Corn-Starch-Ethanol RFS Issues
- Potential Advantages of Cellulosic Biofuels
- Cellulosic Biofuels Production Uncertainties
- Unintended Policy Outcomes of the "Advanced Biofuels" Mandate
- Energy Supply Issues
- Energy Balance
- Natural Gas Demand
- Energy Security
- Energy Prices
- Greenhouse Gas Emissions
- Ethanol Infrastructure and Distribution Issues
- Distribution Issues
- Higher-Level Ethanol Blends
- Vehicle Infrastructure Issues
- Conclusion
- Figure 1. Renewable Fuels Standard (RFS2) vs U.S. Ethanol Production Since 1995
- Figure 2. Annual Minimum Liability for Biofuel Tax Credits Under the RFS2
- Figure 3. Ethanol Uses an Increasing Share of U.S. Corn Production, Particularly Since 2005, While Feed Use Has Fallen Sharply
- Figure 4. U.S. Annual Corn Planted Acres and Yield
- Figure 5. Monthly U.S. Corn Prices Have Trended Upward Since Late 2005
- Table 1. U.S. Production of Biofuels from Various Feedstocks
- Table 2. EISA 2007 Expansion of the Renewable Fuel Standard
- Table 3. Federal Tax Credits Available for Qualifying Biofuels

11.  Renewable Fuel Standard Program (RFS2): Final Rule, U.S. EPA, February 3, 2010 . . . . . . 193

- Key Actions
- New Renewable Volume Standards
- EISA Expands Coverage to Include Diesel and Nonroad Fuels
- 2010 Standards
- Setting the 2010 Cellulosic Standard
- Treatment of Biomass-based Diesel in 2010
- Greenhouse Gas Reduction Thresholds
- Requirements for Feedstock Producers
- Overview of Impacts of Increasing Volume Requirements in the RFS2 Program
- Petroleum Consumption, Energy Security and Fuel Costs
- Greenhouse Gas Emissions
- Emissions and Air Quality
- Agriculture Sector and Related Impacts

12.  E85 and Flex Fuel Vehicles, U.S. EPA, October 2009 . . . . . 201

- E85 Fuel
- Flex Fuel Vehicles
- Affordability
- E85 and Conventional Vehicles
- Benefits

13.  "Renewable Energy Programs in the 2008 Farm Bill," CRS Report for Congress RL34130, September 30, 2009 . . . . . . . 205

- Background
- Major Energy Provisions in the 2008 Farm Bill
- Energy Policy Issues in the 2008 Farm Bill
- Cellulosic Biofuels
- Tax Credits and Tariffs
- Economic Impacts of Ethanol Production
- Funding for Energy Programs
- Table 1. 2008 Farm Bill (P.L. 110-246): Authorized Funding for Energy Provisions, FY2008-FY2012
- Table 2. 2008 Farm Bill Energy Funding (Presidential Request, Authorization, and Enactment), by Provision, FY2008 to FY2010
- Appendix. Comparison of the Enacted 2008 Farm Bill (P.L. 110-246) with Previous Law

14.  "Renewable Energy: Background and Issues for the 110th Congress," CRS Report for Congress RL34162, December 10, 2008 . . . . . . . 223

- History and Background
- Fuels Production
- Electricity Production
- Action in the 110th Congress
- Budget and Funding Issues and Action
- EPACT Implementation (P.L. 109-58)
- Loan Guarantee Program
- Biofuels and Other New Program Authorizations
- Energy Independence Act Implementation (P.L. 110-140)
- Accelerated Research and Development
- International Energy Programs
- Green Jobs
- FY2009 DOE Budget
- Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy
- Electricity Delivery and Energy Reliability
- FY2009 Department of Agriculture (USDA) Request
- Congressional Action on FY2009 Appropriations (P.L. 110-329)
- House Passes H.R. 2638, Continuing Appropriations Resolution
- House Passes H.R. 7110, Supplemental Appropriations
- Senate Adopts H.R. 2638
- Tax Credit Issues and Action (P.L. 110-343)
- Debate over Proposed Incentives
- Renewable Energy Electricity Production Tax Credit (PTC)
- Background and History
- Current Status and Past Significance
- Revenue Effects
- Impact on Resource Development
- Combined Impact with State Renewable Portfolio Standards
- Credit Design Issues
- Debate Over PTC Extension
- Solar Investment Tax Credits
- Residential Credit
- Business Credit
- Other Business Tax Credits
- Clean Renewable Energy (Tax Credit) Bonds
- Revenue Offsets Debate
- Regulatory Issues and Action
- Renewable Portfolio Standard (RPS)
- State RPS Debate
- Federal Tax Credit (PTC) Supports State RPS Policies
- Federal RPS Debate
- Other Regulatory Issues
- Wind Energy
- Marine (Tidal, Wave, and Ocean) Energy and Hydrokinetic (River Current) Energy
- Renewable Fuels and Energy Security
- Types of Renewable "Biofuels"
- Corn Ethanol
- Corn Ethanol Impacts and Debate
- Cellulosic Ethanol
- Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS)
- New Goals Set By the Energy Independence Act
- Implementation Concerns
- Potential to Reduce Oil Imports
- Biofuels Funding and Tax Issues
- Biofuels Technology Funding Initiative
- Tax Incentives Provided in P.L. 110-343 (Division B)
- Climate Change
- CO₂ Emissions Reduction Estimates
- Support for Renewables to Curb CO₂
- Climate Security Act (S. 3036)
- Legislation
- Major Laws Enacted in the First Session
- FY2008 Appropriations (P.L. 110-161)
- Energy Independence and Security Act (P.L. 110-140)
- Major Laws Enacted in Second Session
- Farm Bill (P.L. 110-246) Provisions
- FY2009 Appropriations (P.L. 110-329)
- Emergency Economic Stabilization Act (P.L. 110-343)
- Other Laws and Bills
- Table 1. DOE Loan Guarantee Program Funding
- Table 2. Selected Wind Production Tax Credit (PTC) Extension Proposals
- Table 3. Clean Renewable Energy Bonds History
- Table 4. DOE Renewable Energy Budget for FY2006-FY2009
- Table 5. Production Tax Credit Value and Duration by Resource
- Table 6. Production Tax Credit Claims, History and Projections
- Table 7. Renewable Fuels Compared with Persian Gulf Imports

15.  "Background on Sugar Policy Issues," CRS Report for Congress RL33541, July 26, 2007 . . . . . . . 265

- Recent Developments
- History of and Background on the Sugar Program
- Main Features of U.S. Sugar Policy
- Price Support Loans
- Loan Rates
- Effective Support Levels
- Marketing Allotments
- Allotments Required When Sugar Imports Are Below 'Trigger' Level
- Allotments Suspended When Imports Exceed Trigger Level
- Exception to Suspending Allotments
- FY2006 and FY2007 Allotment Announcements
- Import Quotas
- FY2006 Import Quota Decisions
- FY2007 Import Quota Decisions
- Sugar Imports, the Allotment Suspension Trigger Level, and DR-CAFTA
- Legislative Activity in the 109th Congress
- House Amendment to FY2007 Agriculture Appropriations
- Senate Oversight Hearing
- Administration's FY2007 Budget Proposal
- Sugar Trade Issues
- Sugar in Trade Agreement Negotiations
- Key Interest Group Views
- Sugar in DR-CAFTA
- Sugar Deal to Secure Votes
- FTA Negotiations with Australia
- Sugar in the Peru, Colombia, and Panama FTAs
- Sugar in WTO Negotiations
- Sweetener Disputes with Mexico
- 2006 Sweetener Agreement
- Reactions to Agreement
- Potential Impact
- 2007 Farm Bill Debate on the Sugar Program
- Sugar Program Options
- Factors That Will Affect the Debate
- Interest Group Positions
- USDA's Farm Bill Proposal
- Status of Sugar in 2007 Farm Bill Debate to Date
- Figure 1. Implementation of Sugar Marketing Allotments, FY2006
- Figure 2. U.S. Sugar Imports Compared to Allotment Suspension Trigger: Trade Agreement Commitments; FY2003-FY2006 Actual; and FY2007-FY2008 Estimates

16.  "Sugar Policy and the 2008 Farm Bill," CRS Report for Congress RL34103, January 30, 2009 . . . . . . . 295

- Overview of Sugar Program
- Issues in 2008 Farm Bill Debate
- Level of Sugar Price Support
- Implementation
- Controlling Sugar Supply to Protect Sugar Prices
- Import Quotas
- Marketing Allotments
- Sugar for Ethanol
- Sugar Program Costs
- Table 1. Annual U.S. Sugar Import Commitments When the 2002 Farm Bill Was Enacted
- Table 2. Comparison of National Sugar Allotment to USDA-Projected Sugar Production, FY2009
- Appendix. Comparison of 2008 Farm Bill Sugar Program Provisions with Previous Law and House and Senate Bills

17.  "Biofuels Provisions in the 2007 Energy Bill and the 2008 Farm Bill: A Side-by-Side Comparison," CRS Report for Congress RL34239, January 26, 2009 . . . . . . . 313

- Introduction
- Key Elements of EISA and the 2008 Farm Bill
- Table 1. Comparison of Current or Prior Law with Biofuels Provisions in EISA and the Enacted Farm Bill

18.  "Ethanol and a Changing Agricultural Landscape," by Scott A. Malcolm, Marcel Aillery, and Marca Weinberg, ERS Report Summary, USDA Economic Research Service, November 2009 . . . . . . . 337
 

19.  "Cellulosic Biofuels: Analysis of Policy Issues for Congress," CRS Report for Congress RL34738, February 1, 2010 . . . . . . . 339

- Introduction
- The Renewable Fuel Standard: A Mandatory Usage Mandate
- Challenges Facing the Industry
- Cellulosic Feedstock Supplies
- Crop Residues
- Prairie Grasses
- Forest Sources of Biomass
- Secondary and Tertiary Feedstocks
- Feedstock Issues
- Volumes Required
- Impacts on Food Supplies
- Establishment Costs and Contracting Arrangements
- Extracting Fuel from Cellulose: Conversion
- Production Processes
- Acid Hydrolysis
- Enzymatic Hydrolysis
- Thermochemical Gasification and Pyrolysis
- Distribution and Absorption Constraints
- Distribution Bottlenecks
- The Blend Wall
- Economic and Environmental Issues
- Economic Efficiency
- Energy Balance
- Environment
- Greenhouse Gas Emissions
- Private Investment
- Federal Cellulosic Biofuels Policies
- Direct Federal Spending on R&D
- Federal-Private Partnerships
- Renewable Energy Provisions in the 2008 Farm Bill (P.L. 110-246)
- Tax Credit for Cellulosic Biofuels (Section 15321)
- Ethanol Tariff Extension (Section 15333)
- Agricultural Bioenergy Feedstock and Energy Efficiency Research and Extension Initiative (Section 7207)
- Biorefinery Assistance (Section 9003)
- Repowering Assistance (Section 9004)
- Bioenergy Program for Advanced Biofuels (Section 9005)
- Biomass Research and Development Initiative (Section 9008)
- Biomass Crop Assistance Program (Section 9011)
- Forest Biomass for Energy (Section 9012)
- Energy Improvement and Extension Act of 2008 (P.L. 110-343)
- Expansion of the Allowance for Cellulosic Ethanol Property (Division B, Section 201)
- Legislative Proposals
- Legislative Changes in the RFS Volume
- Expanding Biomass Eligible under the RFS
- Time Frame for Cellulosic Biofuels Production
- Figure 1. Renewable Fuel Standard Under EISA as of November 2009
- Figure 2. Annual Biomass Resource Potential According to USDA
- Table 1. Potential Cellulosic Feedstock Sources
- Table 2. Basic Steps Required to Produce Ethanol

20.  "Food Price Inflation: Causes and Impacts," CRS Report for Congress RS22859, April 10, 2008 . . . . . . . 365

- Summary
- Introduction
- Key Factors Behind Higher Commodity Prices
- How Do Higher Commodity Prices Impact Consumers?
- Energy Costs
- Food Price Changes Vary by Food Type
- Impact on Low-Income Households
- Federal Spending for Domestic Food Assistance Programs
- Foreign Food Aid

21.  "Livestock Feed Costs: Concerns and Options," CRS Report for Congress RS22908, September 17, 2008 . . . . . . . 371

- Summary
- Economic Situation
- Reasons for Higher Feed Costs
- Outlook and Options

22.  "Ethanol and Other Biofuels: Potential for U.S.-Brazil Energy Cooperation," CRS Report for Congress RL34191, September 27, 2007 . . . . . . . 377

- Introduction
- Biofuels: A Definition
- Biofuels: A Potential Solution to Latin America's Oil Dependency?
- Brazil and the United States: Hemispheric Leaders in Ethanol Production
- Ethanol Production Process
- U.S. Ethanol Industry and Market
- Brazil's Ethanol Industry and Market
- The Role of Ethanol and Gasoline in the United States and Brazil
- U.S. Ethanol Imports
- U.S.-Brazilian Memorandum of Understanding on Biofuels
- Policy Considerations
- Import Tariffs and Duties
- Energy Bill and Farm Bill Considerations
- Energy Bill
- Farm Bill
- Food vs. Fuel Debate
- Environmental Concerns
- Greenhouse Gas Emissions
- Water Contamination
- Water Consumption
- Land Use/Soil Quality
- Labor Issues
- Biofuels and Geo-politics in Latin America
- Congressional Action
- Legislation
- Outlook
- Figure 1. Annual Ethanol Production in Brazil and the United States
- Figure 2. Fuel Consumption in the United States and Brazil (billion gallons)
- Figure 3. Vehicles Per 1,000 People in the United States and Brazil
- Figure 4. Ethanol as a Share of Fuel Demand in the United States and Brazil
- Figure 5. Annual Ethanol Imports to the United States

23.  "Ethanol Imports and the Caribbean Basin Initiative," CRS Report for Congress RS21930, March 18, 2008 . . . . . . . 405

- Summary
- Fuel Ethanol
- Ethanol Imports
- Ethanol and the CBI
- Growing U.S. Ethanol Market
- Duty Drawback
- Congressional Action
- Conclusion

24.  EPA Lifecycle Analysis of Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Renewable Fuels, U.S. EPA, February 3, 2010 . . . . . . . 411

- Background
- Threshold Determinations
- Our Analysis
- Next Steps/Future Work
 

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