Energy: Natural Gas (Softcover and ebook)
The Production and Use of Natural Gas, Natural Gas Imports and Exports, EPAct Project, Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) Import Terminals and Infrastructure Security, Underground Working Gas Storage, Fischer-Tropsch Fuels from Coal, Natural Gas, and Biomass, Gas Hydrates, Gas Shales, Hydraulic Fracturing, Alaska Natural Gas Pipelines

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The main ingredient in natural gas is methane, a gas (or compound) composed of one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms. Millions of years ago, the remains of plants and animals (diatoms) decayed and built up in thick layers. This decayed matter from plants and animals is called organic material--it was once alive. Over time, the sand and silt changed to rock, covered the organic material, and trapped it beneath the rock. Pressure and heat changed some of this organic material into coal, some into oil (petroleum), and some into natural gas--tiny bubbles of odorless gas.

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2010, 628 pages Softcover, $27.95 ISBN: 1587331896   ISBN 13: 978-1-58733-189-3 Ebook: $9.95 (free preview below) EISBN 13: 9781587332319 Available from your bookseller or online

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Synopsis	Table of Contents	Related Resources

Discussions of U.S. and global energy supply refer to oil, natural gas, and coal using several terms that may be unfamiliar to some. The terms used to describe different types of fossil fuels have technically precise definitions, and misunderstanding or misuse of these terms may lead to errors and confusion in estimating energy available or making comparisons among fuels, regions, or nations.

For oil and natural gas, a major distinction in measuring quantities of energy commodities is made between proved reserves and undiscovered resources.

Proved reserves are those amounts of oil, natural gas, or coal that have been discovered and defined, typically by drilling wells or other exploratory measures, and which can be economically recovered. In the United States, proved reserves are typically measured by private companies, who report their findings to the Securities and Exchange Commission because they are considered capital assets.

In addition to the volumes of proved reserves are deposits of oil and gas that have not yet been discovered, and those are called undiscovered resources. The term has a specific meaning: undiscovered resources are amounts of oil and gas estimated to exist in unexplored areas. If they are considered to be recoverable using existing production technologies, they are referred to as undiscovered technically recoverable resources (UTRR). In-place resources are intended to represent all of the oil, natural gas, or coal contained in a formation or basin without regard to technical or economic recoverability.

Natural gas provided about 22% of U.S. energy requirements in 2007. It will continue to be a major element of the overall U.S. energy market for the foreseeable future. Given its environmental advantages, it will likely maintain an important market share in the growing electricity generation applications, along with other clean power sources.

In 2008, the United States natural gas market experienced a tumultuous year, and market forces appeared to guide consumers, producers and investors through rapidly changing circumstances. Natural gas continues to be a major fuel supply for the United States, supplying about 24% of total energy in 2008.

In the past, the oil and gas industry considered gas locked in tight, impermeable shale uneconomical to produce. However, advances in directional well drilling and reservoir stimulation have dramatically increased gas production from unconventional shales. The United States Geological Survey estimates that 200 trillion cubic feet of natural gas may be technically recoverable from these shales. Recent high natural gas prices have also stimulated interest in developing gas shales. Although natural gas prices fell dramatically in 2009, there is an expectation that the demand for natural gas will increase. However, developing these shales comes with some controversy.

The hydraulic fracturing treatments used to stimulate gas production from shale have stirred environmental concerns over excessive water consumption, drinking water well contamination, and surface water contamination from both drilling activities and fracturing fluid disposal.

Solid gas hydrates are a potentially huge resource of natural gas for the United States. The U.S. Geological Survey estimated that there are about 85 trillion cubic feet (TCF) of technically recoverable gas hydrates in northern Alaska. The Minerals Management Service estimated a mean value of 21,000 TCF of in-place gas hydrates in the Gulf of Mexico. By comparison, total U.S. natural gas consumption is about 23 TCF annually.

As the price of crude oil sets a record high, liquid transportation fuels synthesized from coal, natural gas, and biomass are proposed as one solution to reducing dependency on imported petroleum and strained refinery capacity. The technology to do so developed from processes that directly and indirectly convert coal into liquid fuel.

As Congress seeks to address energy security issues, the increasing importation of liquefied natural gas (LNG) is also a matter deserving careful attention. In 2007, LNG imports reached a record high and plans are to increase this fuel source.
 

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Table of Contents

1.  "Energy Facts: Onshore Federal Lands," Bureau of Land Management, U.S. Department of Interior, 2005 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

- Oil and Gas
- Oil and Gas Activities, BLM Public Land Statistics, FY 2004
- Oil and Gas Sales and Revenues, MMS Mineral Review, FY 2004
- Oil and Gas Activity over Five-Year Period, BLM Public Land Statistics, FY 2004
- Coal
- Federal Coal Leases, BLM Public Land Statistics, FY 2004
- Coal Sales and Revenues, MMS Mineral Review, FY 2004
- Geothermal
- Geothermal Activities, BLM Public Land Statistics, FY 2004
- Geothermal Revenues, MMS Mineral Review, FY 2004
- Geothermal Revenues from Hot Water or Direct Use, MMS Mineral Review, FY 2004
- Geothermal Leases, BLM Public Land Statistics, FY 2004
- Wind
- Rights of Way
- Number of Existing Rights of Way, BLM Public Land Statistics, FY 2004
- Solar
- Biomass
- Hydropower
- Oil Shale
- Uranium/Nuclear
- Tar Sands
- US Energy Consumption by Energy Source: 2000 Actual and EIA Forecast for 2025

2.  "Natural Gas Explained," Energy Information Administration, U.S. Department of Energy. . . . . . 13

- How Was Natural Gas Formed?
- How Do We Get Natural Gas?
- Natural Gas Statistics
- Delivery and Storage of Natural Gas - Basics
- Natural Gas Is Often Stored Before It Is Delivered
- Natural Gas Can Also Be Stored and Transported as a Liquid
- Natural Gas Pipelines - Basics
- What Makes Up This Transportation Network?
- How Did This Transmission and Distribution Network Become So Large?
- What Is LNG?
- Natural Gas Imports and Exports - Basics
- Pipeline Imports of Natural Gas are Mostly from Canada
- Imports of Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) Are Mostly from Trinidad and Tobago
- Most Natural Gas Exports Go to Mexico and Canada
- How Much Natural Gas is Left - Basics
- Underground Reservoirs Hold Oil and Gas
- What Are Proved Reserves?
- How Much Natural Gas Reserves Are in the United States?
- What Are Undiscovered Technically Recoverable Resources?
- Use of Natural Gas - Basics
- Natural Gas Is a Major Energy Source for the United States
- How Natural Gas Is Used
- Where Natural Gas Is Used
- Natural Gas Prices - Basics
- Average Natural Gas Prices in the United States
- How Can Residential Customers Reduce Their Natural Gas Bills?
- Factors Affecting Natural Gas Prices - Basics
- Domestic Supply and Prices Can Be Cyclical
- Severe Weather Can Disrupt Production
- Pipeline Imports from Canada Are the Second Largest Source of Supply
- Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) Imports May Increase
- Strong Economic Growth Can Drive Up Natural Gas Demand and Prices
- Winter Weather Strongly Influences Residential and Commercial Demand
- Hot Summer Weather Can Increase Power Plant Demand for Gas
- Natural Gas Supplies Held in Storage Play a Key Role in Meeting Peak Demand
- Oil Prices Can Influence Natural Gas Prices
- Natural Gas and the Environment - Basics
- Natural Gas Use Contributes to Air Pollution
- Technology Helps Reduce Drilling's "Footprint"
- Natural Gas Customer Choice Programs - Basics
- How Choice Programs Work
- Choice Enrollment Reached a New High in 2008

3.  "U.S. Fossil Fuel Resources: Terminology, Reporting, and Summary," Congressional Research Service (CRS) Report for Congress R40872, October 28, 2009 . . . . . . 31

- Introduction
- Characteristics of Fossil Fuels
- Terminology
- Proved Reserves and Undiscovered Resources
- The Importance of Terminology: The Example of the Bakken Formation
- Conventional Versus Unconventional Oil and Natural Gas Deposits
- Authoritative Data Sources for U.S. Fossil Fuel Reserves and Resources
- U.S. Oil and Natural Gas Reserves and Resources
- Proved Reserves
- Undiscovered Oil and Natural Gas Resources
- Sub-Economic Oil and Natural Gas Resources
- Shale Oil
- Shale Gas
- Methane Hydrates
- Heavy Oil
- U.S. Coal Reserves and Resources
- Expressing Fossil Fuels as Barrels of Oil Equivalent (BOE)
- A Brief Overview of Global Fossil Fuel Resources
- U.S. Production and Consumption of Oil, Natural Gas, and Coal
- Key Terms Used in Oil Statistics
- Figure 1. The Resource Pyramid Concept
- Figure 2. Resource Pyramid for U.S. Oil
- Table 1. Onshore U.S. Oil, Natural Gas, and Natural Gas Liquids
- Table 2. Offshore U.S. Oil and Natural Gas
- Table 3. Total U.S. Endowment of Technically Recoverable Oil and Natural Gas
- Table 4. U.S. fossil fuel reserves and resources expressed as BOE
- Table 5. Total Fossil Fuel Reserves of Selected Nations
- Table 6. Reserves of Fossil Fuels Plus Technically Recoverable Undiscovered Oil and Natural Gas
- Table 7. United States Annual Consumption of Oil, Natural Gas, and Coal
- Appendix. Definition of Terms

4.  "High Natural Gas Prices: The Basics," Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC), February 1, 2006 . . . . . . 61

5.  "Natural Gas Markets: An Overview of 2008," CRS Report for Congress R40487, March 31, 2009 . . . . . . 65

- Introduction
- Background
- Market Conditions
- Prices
- An Anomalous Price Pattern
- Consumption
- Supply
- Market Trends
- Strong Production
- Seasonality
- Gas-for-Power Use
- Industrial Gas Use
- Global LNG Trade
- Infrastructure Progress
- Forecasts
- Uncertainties
- Weather
- Oil Prices
- Economy
- Conclusion
- Figure 1. U.S. Natural Gas Wholesale Price Overview
- Figure 2. U.S. End Use Price Overview
- Figure 3. Estimated Recoverable Natural Gas for Select Shale Basins
- Figure 4. Monthly Natural Gas Consumption: Total and Electric Power Use
- Figure 5. Comparison of Natural Gas and Competing Oil Product Prices
- Figure A-1. Henry Hub and EIA Citygate Prices (1995-2008)
- Table 1. U.S. Natural Gas Consumption Overview
- Table 2. U.S. Natural Gas Supply Overview
- Table 3. Lower-48 LNG Overview
- Table 4. Infrastructure Completed in 2007
- Table 5. Infrastructure Completed in 2008
- Table A-1. U.S. Natural Gas Wholesale Price Overview
- Table A-2. U.S. Natural Gas Wholesale Price Overview
- Table A-3. U.S. End Use Price Overview
- Table A-4. U.S. End Use Price Overview
- Table A-5. Selected Natural Gas Market Regional Prices
- Table A-6. Consumption of Natural Gas
- Table A-7. Heating and Cooling Degree Days
- Table A-8. Supply of Natural Gas
- Appendix A. Selected Statistics
- Appendix B. Acronyms

6.  "Natural Gas Markets: Overview and Policy Issues," CRS Report for Congress RL34508, May 23, 2008 . . . . . . . 89

- Introduction
- Background
- Market Conditions
- Prices
- Consumption
- Supply
- Market Trends
- Seasonality
- Increasing Gas-for-Power Use
- Industrial Gas Use Rebound
- Global LNG Trade
- Infrastructure Progress
- Forecasts
- Uncertainties
- Weather
- Oil Prices
- Economy
- Recent Developments
- Conclusion
- Appendix
- Figure 1. Monthly Natural Gas Consumption: Total and Electric Power Use
- Figure 2. Comparison of Natural Gas and Competing Oil Product Prices
- Table 1. U.S. Natural Gas Wholesale Price Overview
- Table 2. U.S. Retail Price overview
- Table 3. U.S. Natural Gas Consumption Overview
- Table 4. U.S. Natural Gas Supply Overview
- Table 5. Lower-48 LNG Overview
- Table 6. Infrastructure Complete in 2007
- Table A1. Selected Natural Gas Market Statistics Prices
- Table A2. Consumption
- Table A3. Supply
- Table A4. Infrastructure Projects into Service in 2007

7.  "EPAct Project: Valuing Domestically Produced Natural Gas and Oil, Final Report," National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL), December 31, 2008 . . . . . . 109

- Executive Summary
- Section 1:0 Objective, Scope, and Key Assumptions of the Impact Analysis Project
- 1.1 Objective
- 1.2 Scope
- 1.3 Design Parameters and Assumptions
- Section 2.0 Comparison to Other Production Impact Studies
- Section 3.0 Model Evaluation and Selection
- 3.1 Model Review
- 3.2 The Input-Output Model and Accounting Framework
- Section 4.0 Definitions of Regions Used in the Model
- Section 5.0 Model Data Sources
- Section 6.0 Regional and National Table Construction Methodology
- 6.1 Input-Output Model Obtained from IMPLAN
- 6.2 Table Editing Procedure
- 6.2.1 Import Substitution Impacts
- 6.2.2 Construction Impacts
- 6.3 International Trade Feedback Effects
- Section 7.0 Spreadsheet Model Construction
- 7.1 Calculations
- 7.1.1 Regional Information
- 7.1.2 Production Results
- 7.1.3 Impact on Supply Allocation
- 7.1.4 Calculating Increased Regional Industry Output and Reduced Import Payments
- 7.1.5 Construction Cost Results
- 7.2 Results Presentation
- 7.3 Other Model Tabs
- Section 8.0 User Instructions
- Section 9.0 Scenario and Results Analysis
- 9.1 Scenarios
- 9.1.1 The Baseline
- 9.1.2 The Counterfactual
- 9.2 Model Analysis Results
- 9.2.1 Region 1 (Marcellus Shale) - Standardized Production Increase
- 9.2.2 Region 1 (Marcellus Shale) - Scenario Analysis
- 9.2.3 Region 2 (Bakken Shale) - Standardized Production Increase
- 9.2.4 Region 2 (Bakken Shale) - Scenario Analysis
- 9.2.5 Region 3 (Barnett Shale) - Standardized Production Increase
- 9.2.6 Region 3 (Barnett Shale) - Scenario Analysis
- 9.2.7 Region 4 (Greater Green River/Jonah Field/Pinedale Anticline) - Standardized Production Increase
- 9.2.8 Region 4 (Greater Green River/Jonah Field/Pinedale Anticline) - Scenario Analysis
- 9.2.9 Region 5 (California) - Standardized Production Increase
- 9.2.10 Region 5 (California) - Scenario Analysis
- 9.2.11 Region 6 (U.S. Lower 48) - Standardized Production Increase
- 9.2.12 Region 6 (U.S. Lower 48) - Scenario Analysis
- 9.3 Comparison to Other Studies
- Appendix A: The Input-Output Model
- Methodological Basis
- Transactions Table
- Technical Coefficients
- Open or Closed Model
- Strengths
- Weaknesses
- Geographical Scale
- RPC Method
- Data Requirements
- Applications
- Appendix B: Assessment of Tax Impact Estimation
- Appendix C: Industry Aggregation Schema
- Appendix D: Acronyms
- Appendix E: Glossary
- References

8.  "Unconventional Gas Shales: Development, Technology, and Policy Issues," CRS Report for Congress R40894, October 30, 2009 . . . . . . . 223

- Background
- Unconventional Gas Shale Resources in the United States
- Barnett Shale Formation
- Natural Gas Resource Potential
- Southwest Regional Gas Supply and Demand
- Groundwater Resource Issues
- Marcellus Shale Formation
- Natural Gas Resource Potential
- Northeast Regional Natural Gas Supply and Demand
- Groundwater Resource Issues
- Drilling and Development Technology
- Drilling
- Well Construction and Casing
- Hydraulic Fracturing
- Fracturing Fluids
- Hydraulic Fracture Process
- Fracture Geometry
- Fracturing Risks to Groundwater
- Leasing Issues for Gas Development
- New York
- Pennsylvania
- West Virginia
- State Summary
- Lease Audit (Product Valuation and Verification)
- Severance Taxes
- Federal Land Leasing and Restrictions to Leasing
- Federal and State Laws and Regulations Affecting Gas Shale Development
- Surface Water Quality Protection
- Other Surface Water Quality Issues
- Groundwater Quality Protection
- Safe Drinking Water Act Authority
- Underground Injection of Waste Fluids
- State Water Quality Laws
- State Water Supply Management
- Congressional Interest
- For Further Reading

9.  "Gas Hydrates: Resource and Hazard," CRS Report for Congress RS22990, January 23, 2010 . . . . . . 277

- Gas Hydrate Resources
- Gas Hydrates on the North Slope, Alaska
- Gas Hydrates in the Gulf of Mexico
- Gas Hydrates Along Continental Margins
- Gas Hydrate Hazards
- Gas Hydrate Research and Development
- Figure 1. Gas Hydrate Assessment Area, North Slope, Alaska
- Figure 2. Gas Hydrate Reservoir Pyramid

10.  "Fischer-Tropsch Fuels from Coal, Natural Gas, and Biomass: Background and Policy," CRS Report for Congress RL34133, March 27, 2008 . . . . . . 287

- Introduction
- Synthetic Fuel Technology
- Bergius Direct Liquefaction
- Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis
- Comparing Fischer-Tropsch Products to Conventional Petroleum Distillates
- Octane
- Cetane
- Sulfur
- Exhaust Emissions
- Synthetic Fuel Plants
- Germany's Synthetic Fuel Program
- U.S. Synthetic Fuel Program
- Sasol Coal-to-Liquids Plants
- Shell Bintulu Gas-to-Liquids Plant
- Oryx Gas-to-Liquids Plant
- Syntroleum Catoosa Demonstration Facility
- U.S. Air Force Coal-to-Liquids Initiative
- China's Coal-to-Liquids Program
- Choren Industries
- National Energy Technology Laboratory Study
- Baard Energy Coal-to-Liquids Plant
- Comparing Efficiencies
- Greenhouse Gas -- CO₂
- Policy History
- Authorizations Under the Energy Policy Act
- Additional Tax Incentives
- Defense Related Authorizations and Appropriations
- Bills Introduced in the 110th Congress
- Additional Tax Incentives
- Policy Considerations
- Appendix
- Figure 1. Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis
- Figure 2. Conceptual Fischer-Tropsch Plant
- Figure 3. Iso-octane vs N-octane
- Figure 4. Greenhouse Gas Impacts of Expanded Renewable and Alternative Fuels Use
- Table 1. Comparative Merits and Drawbacks of Fischer-Tropsch
- Table 2. Comparative Efficiencies of Processes Converting Coal, Gas, and Biomass to Liquid Fuels
- Table 3. DOD Synthetic Fuel Projects

11.  "Examining the Potential Impact of Hydraulic Fracturing," House Committee on Energy and Commerce, Letter from Chairman Henry A. Waxman and Subcommittee Chairman Edward J. Markey, February 18, 2010 . . . . . . 321

- Executive Summary
- The Promise of Developing Unconventional Natural Gas Supplies
- Concerns about Hydraulic Fracturing
- EPA's Recent Work on Hydraulic Fracturing
- The Oversight Committee Investigation
- Halliburton
- BJ Services
- Schlumberger
- The Need for Additional Investigation
- The Committee's Letters

12.  "Natural Gas Processing: The Crucial Link Between Natural Gas Production and Its Transportation to Market," Energy Information Administration, U.S. Department of Energy, January 2006 . . . . . 333

- Introduction
- Pipeline-Quality Natural Gas
- Figure 1. Generalized Natural Gas Processing Schematic
- Background
- Stages in the Production of Pipeline-Quality Natural Gas and NGLs
- Other Key Byproducts of Natural Gas Processing
- National Overview
- Table 1. Natural Gas Processing Plant Capacity in the Lower 48 States, 1995 and 2004
- Figure 2. Concentrations of Natural Gas Processing Plants, 2004
- Shift in Installation Patterns
- Figure 3. Major Changes in Proved Natural Gas Reserves, 1995 to 2004
- Table 2. Major Lower 48 Natural Gas Producing 1 States and Federal Offshore
- Impact of Restructuring
- Natural Gas Processing Cost Recovery
- Outlook and Potential

13.  "Alaska Natural Gas Pipelines: Interaction of the Natural Gas and Steel Markets," CRS Report for Congress RL33716, March 28, 2007 . . . . . . . 345

- Introduction
- Northern Natural Gas Pipelines: Issues and Alternatives
- Bringing North Slope Gas to Market
- An Untapped Resource
- Congressional Support for an Alaskan Gas Pipeline
- No Gas Pipeline Is Started in Alaska
- The Northern Route and Mackenzie Delta Gas
- The Liquefied Natural Gas Option
- Financing the Pipeline under Federal Legislation
- State-Level Pipeline Negotiations in Alaska: A New Governor and a New Approach
- Progress on Canada's Mackenzie Pipeline Project
- Evaluating an Alaskan Pipeline Investment Project
- Pipeline Returns
- Pipeline Costs
- Risk Factors
- Market Conditions in the Natural Gas Markets
- Long Run Natural Gas Markets: EIA's Projections
- Recent History of Natural Gas Markets
- Consumption
- Production and Imports
- Natural Gas Reserves
- Natural Gas Prices
- Uncertainties
- Short Term Market Conditions
- The Impact of Steel Prices and Availability
- The Reversal in Steel Prices
- North American Large Pipe Production Capacity
- The ExxonMobil High-Strength Pipeline Steel Project
- Conclusion
- Figure 1. Alaska Oil and Gas Pipelines
- Figure 2: U.S. Natural Gas Price, Consumption and Production Indexes
- Figure 3. Prices for Large-Diameter Steel Pipe and Plate
- Table 1: Overview of U.S. Natural Gas Market

14.  "The Alaska Natural Gas Pipeline: Status and Current Policy Issues," CRS Report for Congress RL34671, September 12, 2008 . . . . . . . 381

- Introduction
- Historical Overview
- Recent Developments
- Alaska's Selection Process
- Applications
- Recent Reports
- Current Status of AGIA
- Policy Issues
- Energy Supply
- Open Access to the Pipeline
- Project Risk Management and Sharing
- Diligent Development
- International Issues
- Alaska Economic Development
- Environmental Effects
- Conclusion
- Figure 1. Alaska Oil and Gas Pipelines
- Table 1. Selected Dates from Alaska Natural Gas Development

15.  "Expansion of the U.S. Natural Gas Pipeline Network: Additions in 2008 and Projects through 2011," Energy Information Administration, U.S. Department of Energy, September 2009 . . . . . . . 399

- Highlights
- National Overview
- Table 1. Thirty Largest U.S. Intersate Natural Gas Pipeline Systems, 2008
- Table 2. Recent and Proposed Regional Natural Gas Pipeline Additions and Expansions, 2009 - 2011
- Regional Overview
- Table 3. Natural Gas Pipeline Construction Projects Completed in 2008, Central Region
- Table 4. Natural Gas Pipeline Construction Projects Completed in 2008, Midwest Region
- Table 5. Natural Gas Pipeline Construction Projects Completed in 2008, Northeast Region
- Table 6. Natural Gas Pipeline Construction Projects Completed in 2008, Southeast Region
- Table 7. Natural Gas Pipeline Construction Projects Completed in 2008, Southwest Region
- Table 8. Natural Gas Pipeline Construction Projects Completed in 2008, Western Region
- Observations and Outlook

16.  "Estimates of Peak Underground Working Gas Storage Capacity in the United States, 2009 Update," Energy Information Administration, U.S. Department of Energy . . . . . . . 417

- Regional and National Estimates of Gas Storage Capacity
- Table 1. Estimates of Natural Gas Storage Capacity and Historical Maximum Storage Volumes April 2008 and April 2009
- Figure 1. Aggregate Volume Reported by Storage Fields that Attained their Highest Level of Working Gas in the Months, September 2006 through April 2009
- Conclusion

17.  "Russian Oil and Gas Challenges," CRS Report for Congress RL33212, June 20, 2007 . . . . . . . 423

- Oil and Gas Reserves and Production
- Exports
- Petroleum
- Natural Gas
- Energy Policy
- Major Proposed New or Expanded Pipelines
- Implications for the United States
- Figure 1. Russia
- Figure 2. Druzhba and Adria Oil Pipelines
- Figure 3. Selected Northwestern Oil Pipelines
- Figure 4. Proposed Bosporus Bypass Options
- Figure 5. Proposed Far East Oil Pipelines
- Figure 6. Natural Gas Pipelines to Europe
- Table 1. Oil and Natural Gas Reserves and Production

18.  "What role does liquefied natural gas (LNG) play as an energy source for the United States?" Energy Information Administration, U.S. Department of Energy, December 11, 2009 . . . . . . . 445

19.  "Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) Infrastructure Security: Issues for Congress," CRS Report for Congress RL32073, May 13, 2008 . . . . . . . 447

- Introduction
- Scope and Limitations
- Background
- What is LNG?
- Expectations for U.S. LNG Growth
- Overview of U.S. LNG Infrastructure
- LNG Tanker Ships
- LNG Marine Terminals
- LNG Peak Shaving Plants
- LNG Risks and Vulnerabilities
- Physical Hazards of LNG
- Safety Record of LNG
- LNG Security Risks
- LNG Tanker Vulnerability
- Federal LNG Security Initiatives
- Security Activities of Federal Maritime Agencies
- U.S. Coast Guard
- Maritime Administration
- Federal Pipeline and Chemical Security Agencies
- Office of Pipeline Safety
- Transportation Security Administration
- Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC)
- Department of Homeland Security
- Federal Interagency Cooperation in LNG Security
- Industry Initiatives for Land-Based LNG Security
- Key Policy Issues in LNG Security
- Public Costs of LNG Marine Security
- Uncertainty About LNG Threats
- Foreign vs. U.S. LNG Tankers and Crews
- Conclusions
- Figure 1. Average U.S. Natural Gas Wellhead Price ($/Mcf)
- Figure 2. Approved LNG Terminals in North America

20.  "Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) Import Terminals: Siting, Safety, and Regulation," CRS Report for Congress RL32205, December 14, 2009 . . . . . . . 479

- Introduction
- Issues Facing Congress
- Scope and Limitations
- Background
- What Is LNG and Where Does It Come From?
- Expectations for U.S. LNG Import Growth
- Proposed LNG Import Terminals in the United States
- Potential Safety Hazards from LNG Terminals
- Physical Hazards of LNG
- Pool Fires
- Flammable Vapor Clouds
- Other Safety Hazards
- Terrorism Hazards
- Safety Record of LNG
- LNG Hazard Models
- Hazards vs. Risks
- LNG Terminal Safety in Perspective
- Other Hazardous Materials
- Civil and Criminal Liability
- Regulation of Onshore LNG Siting
- Department of Transportation
- Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC)
- FERC-DOT Jurisdictional Issues
- U.S. Coast Guard
- National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
- State Regulatory Roles
- Federal-State Jurisdictional Conflicts
- Key Policy Issues
- "Exclusive" Federal Siting Authority
- Regional Siting Approach
- "Remote" Siting of LNG Terminals
- Other Statutes that May Influence LNG Terminal Siting
- Terror Attractiveness
- Public Costs of LNG Marine Security
- Other Issues
- Conducting More Safety Research
- Developer Employee Disclosure
- Reducing LNG Demand
- Conclusion
- Figure 1. Approved LNG Terminals in North America
- Table 1. Recent LNG Hazard Studies
- Appendix. Offshore LNG Terminal Regulation

21.  "Oil and Gas Tax Subsidies: Current Status and Analysis," CRS Report for Congress RL33763, February 27, 2007 . . . . . . . 513

- Action in the 110th Congress
- Background
- Policy Context and Analysis
- Oil and Gas Tax Provisions in EPACT05 and their Revenue Effects
- Amortization of Geological and Geophysical Expenditures
- Determination of Independent Producer Status for Purposes of the Oil Depletion Deduction
- Natural Gas Distribution Lines Treated as 15-Year Property
- Temporary Expensing for Equipment Used in Oil Refining
- Arbitrage Rules Not To Apply to Prepayments for Natural Gas
- Natural Gas Gathering Lines Treated as Seven-Year Property
- Pass Through to Owners of Deduction for Capital Costs Incurred by Small Refiner Cooperatives in Complying with EPA Sulfur Regulations
- Modification and Extension of Credit for Producing Fuel from a Nonconventional Source for Facilities Producing Coke or Coke Gas
- Revenue Effects
- Tax Increases
- Other Oil and Gas Tax Subsidies
- Other Oil and Gas Tax Subsidies
- General Tax Provisions that May Benefit the Oil and Gas Industry
- Table 1. Energy Tax Provisions in the Energy Tax Act of 2005 (P.L. 109-58): 11-Year Estimated Revenue Loss, by Type of Incentive
- Table 2. Special Tax Incentives Targeted for the Oil and Gas Industry and Estimated Revenue Losses, FY2006

22.  "Royalty Relief for U.S. Deepwater Oil and Gas Leases," CRS Report for Congress RS22567, February 4, 2009 . . . . . . . 537

- Introduction
- OCS Leasing System
- Royalty Relief
- Deepwater Development
- Congressional Concerns
- Legislative Actions
- Table 1. Minimum Royalty Suspension Volumes Per Lease
- Table 2. Deepwater Proved Reserves and Resources

23.  "Natural Gas Passenger Vehicles: Availability, Cost, and Performance," CRS Report for Congress RS22971, February 3, 2010 . . . . . . . 547

- Introduction
- Current Market
- Life-Cycle Cost Issues
- Other Potential Benefits and Costs
- NGV Conversions
- Legislation
- Conclusion

24.  "Displacing Coal with Generation from Existing Natural Gas-Fired Power Plants," CRS Report for Congress R41027, January 19, 2010 . . . . . . . 557

- Introduction
- Purpose and Organization
- Issues Not Considered in the Report
- Background on Gas-Fired Generation and Capacity
- Capacity Trends
- Factors Supporting the Boom in Gas-Fired Plant Construction
- Technology
- Natural Gas Prices
- Carbon Dioxide Emissions
- Electric Power Industry Restructuring and Overbuilding
- Coal Displacement Feasibility Issues
- Estimates of Displaceable Coal-Fired Generation and Emissions
- Transmission System Factors
- Isolation of the Interconnections
- Limited Long-Distance Transmission Capacity
- Transmission System Congestion
- Power Plant Proximity Analysis
- System Dispatch Factors
- Natural Gas Supply and Price
- Natural Gas Transportation and Storage
- Policy Considerations
- Figure 1. Net Change in Generating Capacity by Energy Source, 1990 to 2007
- Figure 2. Shares of Total Generating Capacity by Energy Source, 1989 and 2007
- Figure 3. Henry Hub Cash Spot Price for Natural Gas
- Figure 4. Location of Large Coal-Fired Power Plants in the Conterminous States
- Figure 5. Location of Large NGCC Power Plants in the Conterminous States
- Figure 6. United States Power System Interconnections
- Figure 7. Coal Plants with Hypothetical Generation Displaced by a NGCC Plant Within 10 Miles
- Figure 8. Coal Plants with Hypothetical Generation Displaced by a NGCC Plant Within 25 Miles
- Figure 9. Monthly Capacity Factors in 2007 for Study Group Coal and NGCC Plants
- Figure 10. Hourly Coal and Combined Cycle Generation at Plant Barry
- Figure A-1. Elements of the Electric Power System
- Figure A-2. Illustrative Daily Load Curve
- Figure B-1. Schematic of a Combined Cycle Power Plant
- Table 1. Growth in Generating Capacity, 1990 - 2007
- Table 2. Utilization of Study Group NGCC Plants, 2007
- Table 3. Approximation of the Maximum Displaceable Coal-Fired Generation, Based on 2007 Data
- Table 4. Approximation of Maximum Displaceable CO2 Emitted by Coal-Fired Generators, Based on 2007 Data
- Table 5. Hypothetical Estimates of the Displacement of Coal Generation and Emissions by Existing NGCC Plants Based on Proximity
- Table 6. Illustrative Estimates of Increased Natural Gas Demand For Coal Displacement Compared to Total National Demand
- Table 7. Illustrative Estimates of Increased Natural Gas Demand Relative to Electric Power Demand, Based on 2007 Data
- Appendix A. Background on the Electric Power System
- Appendix B. Combined Cycle Technology

25.  Natural Gas STAR Program, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, November 2009 . . . . . . . 591

- Why is Reducing Methane Emissions Important?
- What are the Benefits to Participating in Natural Gas STAR?
- How Does the Natural Gas STAR Program Work?

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Energy: Natural Gas mug by TheCapitolNet

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Also see these resources 27.  Other Resources  . . . . . . . . . 597 - Government - Associations, Coalitions, News - Books - Movies

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