According to the U.S. Department of Energy’s (DOE) Office of Nuclear Energy, nuclear energy provides about 20 percent of U.S. electricity through the operation of 104 nuclear reactors. Combined construction and operating license applications have been submitted for 28 new U.S. nuclear power plants, with eight more expected.

Nuclear power started coming online in significant amounts in the late 1960s. By 1975, in the midst of the oil crisis, nuclear power was supplying 9 percent of total electricity generation. Increases in capital costs, construction delays, and public opposition to nuclear power following the Three Mile Island accident in 1979 curtailed expansion of the technology, and many construction projects were canceled. Continuation of some construction increased the nuclear share of generation to 20 percent in 1990, where it remains currently.

Nuclear power is now receiving renewed interest, prompted by volatile fossil fuel prices, possible carbon dioxide controls, and new federal subsidies and incentives. The 2005 Energy Policy Act (P.L. 109-58) authorized streamlined licensing that combines construction and operating permits, and tax credits for production from advanced nuclear power facilities.

All U.S. nuclear plants are currently light water reactors (LWRs), which are cooled by ordinary water. DOE’s nuclear energy research and development program includes advanced reactors, fuel cycle technology and facilities, and infrastructure support. DOE’s Generation IV Nuclear Energy Systems Initiative is developing advanced reactor technologies that could be safer than LWRs and produce high-temperature heat to make hydrogen. The Nuclear Power 2010 program is a government-industry, 50-50 cost-shared initiative. It focuses on deploying Generation III+ advanced light-water reactor designs, and is managed by DOE’s Office of Nuclear Energy.

Congress designated Yucca Mountain, NV as the nation’s sole candidate site for a permanent high-level nuclear waste repository in 1987 amid much controversy. To date no nuclear waste has been transported to Yucca Mountain. In March 2010, the Secretary of Energy filed to withdraw its application for a nuclear-waste repository at Yucca Mountain.

Current law provides no alternative repository site to Yucca Mountain, and it does not authorize the DOE to open temporary storage facilities without a permanent repository in operation. Without congressional action, the default alternative to Yucca Mountain would be indefinite on-site storage of nuclear waste at reactor sites and other nuclear facilities. Private central storage facilities can also be licensed under current law. Such a facility has been licensed in Utah, but its operation has been blocked by the Department of the Interior.

Nuclear energy issues facing Congress include federal incentives for new commercial reactors, radioactive waste management policy, research and development priorities, power plant safety and regulation, nuclear weapons proliferation, and security against terrorist attacks.
 

Table of Contents

Preview
(Table of Contents below)

Energy: Nuclear

 

Table of Contents

Introduction

1.  "The History of Nuclear Energy," by the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Nuclear Energy, Science and Technology  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
 

2.  "Understanding Radiation," by the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Nuclear Energy, Science and Technology. . . . . . 21

3.  "Nuclear Energy--An Overview," by the U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Nuclear Energy . . . . . . 33
 

4.  "Nuclear Energy Enabling Technologies," by the U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Nuclear Energy . . . . . . 35

5.  "Nuclear Energy," by John Grossenbacher, Director, Idaho National Laboratory, October 1, 2009 . . . . . . 37

6.  "U.S. Energy: Overview and Key Statistics," Congressional Research Service (CRS) Report for Congress R40187, October 28, 2009 . . . . . . . 43

- Introduction
- Oil
- Petroleum Consumption, Supply, and Imports
- Petroleum and Transportation
- Petroleum Prices: Historical Trends
- Petroleum Prices: The 2004-2008 Bubble
- Gasoline Taxes
- Electricity
- Other Conventional Energy Resources
- Natural Gas
- Coal
- Renewables
- Conservation and Energy Efficiency
- Vehicle Fuel Economy
- Energy Consumption and GDP
- Major Statistical Resources
- Energy Information Administration (EIA)
- Other Sources
- Figure 1. Per Capita Energy Consumption in Transportation and Residential Sectors, 1949-2008
- Figure 2. Electricity Intensity: Commercial, Residential, and Industrial Sectors, 1949-2008
- Figure 3. U.S. Energy Consumption, 1950-2005 and 2008
- Figure 4. World Crude Oil Reserves, 1973, 1991, and 2008
- Figure 5. U.S. Consumption of Imported Petroleum, 1960-2008 and Year-to-Date Average for 2009
- Figure 6. Transportation Use of Petroleum, 1950-2008
- Figure 7. Nominal and Real Cost of Crude Oil to Refiners, 1968-2008
- Figure 8. Nominal and Real Price of Gasoline, 1950-2008 and August 2009
- Figure 9. Consumer Spending on Oil as a Percentage of GDP, 1970-2006
- Figure 10. Crude Oil Futures Prices, January 2000 to September 2009
- Figure 11. Average Daily Nationwide Price of Unleaded Gasoline, January 2002-October 2009
- Figure 12. U.S. Gasoline Consumption, January 2000-September 2009
- Figure 13. Electricity Generation by Source, Selected Years, 1950-2007
- Figure 14. Changes in Generating Capacity, 1995-2007
- Figure 15. Price of Retail Residential Electricity, 1960-2007
- Figure 16. Natural Gas Prices to Electricity Generators, 1978-2007
- Figure 17. Monthly and Annual Residential Natural Gas Prices, 2000-June 2009
- Figure 18. Annual Residential Natural Gas Prices, 1973-2008
- Figure 19. U.S. Ethanol Production, 1990-2008
- Figure 20. Wind Electricity Net Generation, 1989-2008
- Figure 21. Motor Vehicle Efficiency Rates, 1973-2007
- Figure 22. Oil and Natural Gas Consumption per Dollar of GDP, 1973-2008
- Figure 23. Change in Oil and Natural Gas Consumption and Growth in GDP, 1973-2008
- Table 1. U.S. Energy Consumption, 1950-2008
- Table 2. Energy Consumption in British Thermal Units (BTU) and as a Percentage of Total, 1950-2008
- Table 3. Petroleum Consumption by Sector, 1950-2008
- Table 4. U.S. Petroleum Production, 1950-2008
- Table 5. Transportation Use of Petroleum, 1950-2008
- Table 6. Electricity Generation by Region and Fuel, 2008
- Table 7. Natural Gas Consumption by Sector, 1950-2008
- Table 8. Coal Consumption by Sector, 1950-2008
 

7.  "Nuclear Energy Policy," CRS Report for Congress RL33558, December 10, 2009 . . . . . . 81

- Most Recent Developments
- Nuclear Power Status and Outlook
- Possible New Reactors
- Federal Support
- Nuclear Production Tax Credit
- Standby Support
- Loan Guarantees
- Global Climate Change
- Nuclear Power Research and Development
- Nuclear Power Plant Safety and Regulation
- Safety
- Domestic Reactor Safety
- Reactor Safety in the Former Soviet Bloc
- Licensing and Regulation
- Reactor Security
- Decommissioning
- Nuclear Accident Liability
- Nuclear Waste Management
- Nuclear Weapons Proliferation
- Federal Funding for Nuclear Energy Programs
- Legislation in the 111th Congress
-- H.R. 513 (Forbes)
-- H.R. 1698 (Van Hollen)
-- H.R. 1812 (Bachmann)
-- H.R. 1936 (Lowey)
-- H.R. 1937 (Lowey)
-- H.R. 2454 (Waxman)
-- H.R. 2768 (Wamp)
-- H.R. 2828 (Bishop)
-- H.R. 2846 (Boehner)
-- H.R. 3009 (Ross)
-- H.R. 3183 (Pastor)
-- H.R. 3385 (Barton)
-- H.R. 3448 (Pitts)
-- H.R. 3505 (Gary Miller)
-- S. 591 (Reid)
-- S. 807 (Nelson)
-- S. 861 (Graham)
-- S. 1333 (Barrasso)
-- S. 1462 (Bingaman)
-- S. 1733 (Kerry)
-- S. 2052 (Mark Udall)
-- S. 2776 (Alexander)
-- S. 2812 (Bingaman)
- Table 1. Announced Nuclear Plant License Applications
- Table 2. Funding for the Nuclear Regulatory Commission
- Table 3. DOE Funding for Nuclear Activities

8.  Statement for the Record by Marvin S. Fertel, President and Chief Executive Officer, Nuclear Energy Institute to the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, U.S. Senate, March 18, 2009 . . . . . . . 113

9.  Statement of Thomas B. Cochran, Ph.D., Senior Scientist, Nuclear Program, and Christopher E. Paine, Director, Nuclear Program, Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc. on Nuclear Energy Developments Before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, U.S. Senate, March 18, 2009 . . . . . . 127

10.  Written Testimony of Dale E. Klein, Chairman, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission to the Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, March 18, 2009 . . . . . . 139

11.  "Advanced Reactor Concepts," by the U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Nuclear Energy . . . . . . 149

12.  "Fuel Cycle Research and Development," by the U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Nuclear Energy . . . . . 151

13.  "Advanced Nuclear Power and Fuel Cycle Technologies: Outlook and Policy Options," CRS Report for Congress RL34579, July 11, 2008 . . . . . . . 155

- Nuclear Technology Overview
- DOE Advanced Nuclear Programs
- Global Nuclear Energy Partnership
- History
- Current Program
- Funding
- Generation IV
- Time Lines and Options
- Industry Studies
- EnergySolutions, Shaw, and Westinghouse
- GE-Hitachi
- General Atomics
- Areva
- Policy Implications

14.  "Nuclear Fuels & Materials Spotlight," Idaho National Laboratory, March 2009 . . . . . . . 169

15.  "Science Based Fuel Cycle Research and Development," by Phillip Finck, Idaho National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, June 9, 2009 . . . . . . . 239

16.  "Nuclear Fuel Reprocessing: U.S. Policy Development," CRS Report for Congress RS22542, March 27, 2008 . . . . . . . 247

17.  "Light Water Reactor Sustainability Research and Development Program Plan Fiscal Year 2009-2013," Idaho National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Nuclear Energy, December 2009 . . . . . . . 257

18.  "Renewable Energy R&D Funding History: A Comparison with Funding for Nuclear Energy, Fossil Energy, and Energy Efficiency R&D," CRS Report for Congress RS22858, April 9, 2008 . . . . . . . 313

- Introduction
- Guide to Tables and Charts
- Background
- Figure 1. DOE Energy Technology Share of Funding, FY1998-FY2007
- Figure 2. DOE Energy Technology Share of Funding, FY1978-FY2007
- Figure 3. DOE Energy Technology Share of Funding, FY1948-FY2007
- Table 1. DOE Energy Technology Cumulative Funding Totals
- Table 2. DOE Energy Technology Share of Funding
 

19.  "Light Water Reactor Sustainability," by the U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Nuclear Energy . . . . . . . 323

20.  "Energy Innovation Hub For Modeling and Simulation," by the U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Nuclear Energy . . . . . . . 327

21.  "Nuclear Energy University Programs," by the U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Nuclear Energy . . . . . . . 331

22.  "Next Generation Nuclear Plant Demonstration Project," by the U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Nuclear Energy . . . . . . . 335

23.  "Plutonium--238 Production Project," by the U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Nuclear Energy . . . . . . . 339

24.  "Small Modular Reactors," by the U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Nuclear Energy . . . . . . . 341

25.  "Generation IV Nuclear Energy Systems," by the U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Nuclear Energy . . . . . . . 343

26.  "Nuclear Power 2010," by the U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Nuclear Energy . . . . . . . 347

27.  "Nuclear Power 2010," by the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Nuclear Energy . . . . . . . 351

28.  "Idaho Nuclear Infrastructure," by the U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Nuclear Energy . . . . . . . 353

29.  "Radioactive Waste: Production, Storage, Disposal, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission . . . . . . . 357

30.  "Civilian Nuclear Waste Disposal," CRS Report for Congress RL33461, September 4, 2009 . . . . . . . 395

- Most Recent Developments
- Introduction
- Spent Nuclear Fuel Program
- Other Programs
- Nuclear Utility Lawsuits
- Future Liability Estimates
- Congressional Action
- Characteristics of Nuclear Waste
- Spent Nuclear Fuel
- Commercial Low-Level Waste
- Current Policy and Regulation
- Spent Nuclear Fuel
- Current Program
- Waste Facility Schedules
- Private Interim Storage
- Regulatory Requirements
- Alternative Technologies
- Funding
- Low-Level Radioactive Waste
- Current Policy
- Regulatory Requirements
- Concluding Discussion
- Legislation
- Congressional Hearings, Reports, and Documents
- For Additional Reading
- Figure 1. DOE Estimate of Future Liabilities for Nuclear Waste Delays
- Table 1. DOE Civilian Spent Fuel Management Funding

31.  "Nuclear Waste Disposal: Alternatives to Yucca Mountain," CRS Report for Congress R40202, February 6, 2009 . . . . . . . 419

- Proposals for a New Direction
- Baseline: Current Waste Program Projections
- Options for Halting or Delaying Yucca Mountain
- Withdraw License Application
- Reduce Appropriations
- Key Policy Appointments
- Waste Program Review
- Consequences of a Yucca Mountain Policy Shift
- Federal Liabilities for Disposal Delays
- Licensing Complications for New Power Reactors
- Environmental Cleanup Penalties
- Long-Term Risk
- Nuclear Waste Policy Options
- Institutional Changes
- Extended On-Site Storage
- Federal Central Interim Storage
- Private Central Storage
- Spent Fuel Reprocessing and Recycling
- Non-Repository Options
- New Repository Site
- Concluding Discussion

32.  "The YUCCA Mountain Litigation: Breach of Contract Under the Nuclear Waste Policy Act of 1982," CRS Report for Congress R40996, December 22, 2009 . . . . . . . 447

- Introduction
- Part I: The Road to Litigation
- The Nuclear Waste Policy Act of 1982
- Breach of the Standard Contract
- Part II: Litigation
- DOE’s Statutory Obligation to Begin Accepting SNF
- Prohibiting the "Unavoidable Delay" Defense
- Litigation Continues: Remedies, Offsets, and Damages
- Remedies Under Standard Contract Inadequate
- NWF Offset Invalid
- Calculating Damages
- Jurisdictional Dispute Develops
- Court of Federal Claims Overturns a Decade of Precedent
- Defining the Jurisdiction of the CFC and U.S. Appellate Courts
- The Scope of Section 119 of the NWPA
- Waiver of Sovereign Immunity Under Section 702 of the APA
- Federal Circuit Grants En Banc Hearing
- Part III: Future Prospects
- Yucca Mountain and the Obama Administration
- Future Liability
- Conclusion
- Figure 1. Litigation Timeline

33.  Report to Congressional Requesters, U.S. Government Accountability Office on Nuclear Waste Management--Key Attributes, Challenges, and Costs for the Yucca Mountain Repository and Two Potential Alternatives, November 2009 . . . . . . . 469

34.  "Nuclear Power Plant Safety: Operations," by the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Nuclear Energy, Science, and Technology . . . . . . . 553

35.  "Security Spotlight," U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, May 2007 . . . . . . . 563

36.  "Nuclear Power Plant Security and Vulnerabilities," CRS Report for Congress RL34331, March 18, 2009 . . . . . . . 575

- Overview of Reactor Security
- Design Basis Threat
- Large Aircraft Crashes
- Force-On-Force Exercises
- Emergency Response
- Spent Fuel Storage
- Security Personnel and Other Issues

37.  Report to Congressional Requesters, U.S. Government Accountability Office on Nuclear Safety--NRC’s Oversight of Fire Protection at U.S. Commercial Nuclear Reactor Units Could be Strengthened, June 2008 . . . . . . . 589

38.  Other Resources From TheCapitol.Net . . . . . . . . . . 635

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39.  Other Resources . . . . . . . . . . 637

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